Preposition

Definition: The word ‘preposition’ is from the Latin word praepositio meaning ‘placed before’ or ‘in front of’. Just as the word denotes, a preposition normally precedes a noun or pronoun. It shows a relationship to something, mainly according to place (on the table) or time (at 2.00 pm) and less obviously to a notion, i.e. something abstract (beyond belief). Prepositions, by virtue of coming before a noun or pronoun are said to ‘take an object’.

Types of Preposition

The types of preposition are as follows:

1. Preposition for Time
       2. Preposition for Place
       3. Preposition for Direction
       4. Preposition for Agent
       5. Preposition for Instrument
       6. Prepositional Phrase

Prepositions for Time. (in, on, at)

Prepositions used for time of different natures are in, on at etc.

Preposition	Time Nature
In	1. Month or Year.  e.g. in January, in 1985 2. Particular time of day or month or year e.g. in morning, in evening, in first week of January, in summer, in winter 3. Century or specific time in past etc e.g. in 21st century, in stone age, in past, in future, in present
On	1. Day  e.g. on Monday 2. Date e.g. on 5th of March, March 5 3. Particular day e.g. on Independence Day, on my birthday,
At	1. Time of clock e.g. at 5 O’clock, at 7:30 PM 2. Short and precise time  e.g. at noon, at sunset, at lunch time, at bed time, at the moment, at the same time

Examples:
          He was born in 1945.
          She will go to New York on 25th of March.
          The concert will begin at 7 O’clock.
          He gets up early in the morning.
          We enjoyed a lot in the summer.
          The president will deliver speech to public on Independence Day.
          She received a lot gifts on her birthday.
          Where were you at the lunchtime?
          I will call you at 12 A.M

Preposition for Place. (in, on, at)

Prepositions “in, on or at” are usually used for different places.

·         “In” is usually used for place which have some boundary (boundary may physical or virtual).

·         “On” is  used for surface

·         “At” is used for specific place.

Preposition	Place Nature
In	Place having some boundary (physical or virtual boundary)  Examples. In hall In school In a building In a box In a car In library In garden In America In room In cupboard
On	Surface of something.  Examples. On a table On blackboard  On a page On the wall On the roof On a map
At	Specific Place. Examples. At the entrance At the bottom of glass At front of the chair At bus stop At the edge of roof

Examples:
          She lives in New York.
          Students study in library.
          The wedding ceremony will be held in the hall.
          There are some books on the table.
          The teacher wrote a sentence on blackboard.
          He was flying kite on the roof.
          Her parents were waiting for her at the entrance of school
          There was a huge gathering at bus stop.
          His house is at the end of street.

Preposition for Direction.
(to, toward, through, into)

Prepositions like to, towards, through, into are used to describe the direction. Following examples will help in better understanding.

Examples:
         She went to the library.
         He jumped into the river.
         He ran away when he felt that someone was coming toward him.

Preposition for Agent. (by) 

Preposition for agent is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the sentence. Such prepositions are by, with etc. Following examples will help in better understanding.

Examples:
         This book is written by Shakespeare.
         The work was completed by him.
         The room was decorated by her.
         The tub is filled with water.

Preposition for device, instrument or machine.

Different preposition are used by different devices, instruments or machines. e.g. by, with, on etc. Following examples will help in better understanding.

Examples:
She comes by bus daily.

He opened the lock with key.

Sources:

http://www.studyandexam.com/preposition2.html

Dykes, Barbara. 2007. Grammar for Everyone: Practical Tools for Learning and Teaching Grammar. Aystralia Council for Educational Research Ltd.

The U.S. Negotiator

The USA is a multi-ethnic, multiracial, multi-cultural society. Despite this diversity, there is a mainstream U.S. business culture. For example, you can expect most American negotiators to be reasonably time-conscious (“Time is money”), deal-focused (“Let’s get down to business”), and informal (“What’s your first name?”).

The language of business is American English. Very few Americans speak a foreign language well enough to handle a complex business negotiation. If your English is not adequate, consider hiring an interpreter or asking your U.S. counterpart to do so.

•      Making Contact

Most urban Americans are used to doing business with strangers. If you can’t easily obtain a referral or introduction, you can usually approach your prospective counterpart directly, without going through an intermediary. The more well-known is your company or organization, the easier it is to make direct contact.

Send a letter, fax or email in English with basic information about your company and your product, stating that you will be in touch regarding an appointment. Follow this with a phone call requesting a meeting two or three weeks hence. Your counterpart will suggest a time and place.

•      Deal Focus

American are usually ready to “get down to brass tacks” shortly after meeting a potential business partner for the first time. It’s not that U.S. negotiators are unaware of the importance of getting to know their counterpart, of building a relationship. It’s just that task-focused Yanks prefer to build trust and rapport while business discussions are proceeding.

•      Orientation to Time

Coming from a monochronic culture, Americans treat time as a tangible asset which can be saved, spent, lost, found, invested and wasted.

•      Informality

Because a key U.S. value is egalitarianism, Americans tend to feel uncomfortable in the face of overt status distinctions except those based on individual achievement. However, formality does vary by corporate culture.

The relative lack of status distinctions is reflected in the breezy informality for which Americans are famous. They want to get on a first-name basis quickly, even with people they have just met. Informality is meant to show friendliness and warmth. Business visitors from more formal cultures should realize that easy familiarity is not intended to show disrespect.

Communication Style

Depending on ethnic and regional background as well as individual personality, U.S. negotiators vary in the way they communicate.

•      Verbal Communication

Most Americans speak much more directly than Arabs or people from East and Southeast Asia, but less directly than Germans and German-Swiss. They tend to be suspicious of negotiators who prefer indirect, ambiguous communication. On the other hand, Americans may also be offended by the direct, blunt language favored by Germans and Dutch.

•      Paraverbal Communication

Many U.S. negotiators speak louder at the bargaining table  than people from more reserved cultures. Uncomfortable with silence, they may also feel compelled to quickly fill in any gaps in the conversation–behavior which Japanese for example find offensive. Americans know it is rude to interrupt others in mid-sentence; if they do this anyway in the course of a lively discussion, no offense in intended.

Nonverbal Communication

Meeting and Greeting. Expect a firm handshake and direct eye contact. Some Americans believe a soft handshake reflects weakness and that lack of a direct gaze indicates unreliability or dishonesty. In the U.S. people shake hands less often than most Europeans. Their handshake are quite brief compared to those of Latin Americans but firmer than East and Southeast Asians.

The normal interpersonal distance in a business context is about an arm’s length, similar to the norm in northern Europe.

Touch behavior varies from moderate to relatively high-contact : Less physical contact than is the case with Latins and Mediterranean cultures but more than East and Southeast Asians. American business men may slap each other on the back and grab one another by the elbow or upper arm to express friendliness.

Business Protocol

•      Dress Code

While the proper attire varies according to location and type of business, visitors are well advised to wear a suit and tie to the first meeting with most new contacts.

•      Meeting and Greeting

Expect a firm handshake and a direct gaze. Americans sometimes offer their card at the end of the meeting rather than at the beginning.

•      Forms of Address

A general rule is to start out with Mr, Mrs., Miss or Ms. but to be prepared for your counterpart to switch immediately to first names. If such informality makes you uncomfortable, make it quite clear how you wish to be addressed. Titles are likely to be ignored except in formal meetings unless you are a medical doctor or high government official. With those exceptions, most Americans are uncomfortable with honorifics and titles.  

•      Gift Giving

The U.S. business world is not a give-giving culture. Many  American negotiators feel uncomfortable if presented with an expensive gift.  If you do wish to bring something small, choose a tasteful logo gift or an item your country or region is famous for. A hostess gift of flowers, candy or wine is appreciated, but not expected, when invited to someone’s home for dinner.

•      Winning and Dining

If  invited to that American specialty, the coocktail party, expect to mix informally with a large number of complete strangers, often without introductions by host or hostess. It is appropriate to approach individuals and groups with a smile and introduce yourself.

Negotiating Style

•      Your Presentation

Americans respond best to brisk, factual presentations delivered by a competent speaker of English and enlivened by visual aids where appropriate. They may interrupt with questions rather than hold their questions until the end.

•      Bargaining Range

U.S negotiators experienced in international business are used to a wide variation in bargaining ranges. Expect them to test your opening offer for flexibility. They may respond better to realistic quotations than to the overused high-low tactic. Build a safety margin into your opening bid to cover unexpected developments, but avoid over-inflating your offer.

•      Concession Behavior

Take care to make each concession with great reluctant, and then only on a strict “if … then,” conditional basis. Always demand something of equivalent value in return.

•      Ploys and Counter-ploys

A favorite American bargaining tactic is time pressure: “Next week our prices are going up seven percent …” The best way to counter this ploy is to simply ignore it.

Another favorite ploy is to ask for quotations on a sliding scale by quantity.

You may also encounter the Trial Order gambit in which your potential customer demands your lowest price even for a small ‘test’ order.

·                      •      Decision-Making

American negotiators are probably the fastest decision makers in the world, and proud of it. Some U.S. executives live by the motto, “Right or wrong, but never in doubt.”

•                        •      The Contract

Expect heavy emphasis on the legal aspects and the fine points of the written agreement. Many U.S. negotiators include lawyers in the discussions from the start until the signing ceremony. They often bring a draft agreement to the bargaining table and proceed to negotiate clause by clause. Should a dispute or disagreement arise later, the American side may rely strictly on the terms of the contract and become suspicious if their counterpart invokes noncontract issues such as the importance of the long-term relationship.

Source: Gesteland, R Richard. 2002. Cross-Cultural Business Behavior. Denmark.

Direct and Indirect Speech

There are two ways to report what someone says or thinks:

1.      Direct speech (Quote speech) shows a person’s exact words. In direct speech, we convey the message of the speaker in his own actual words without any change to another person.

Quotation marks (“….”) are a sign that the words are the EXACT words that a person used.

Example: Maria asked, “Where are you going?” John replied, “I’m going home.”

2.      Indirect speech (Reported speech) puts the speaker’s words or ideas into a sentence without quotation marks. In indirect speech, we convey the message of the speaker in our own words to another person. Noun clauses are usually used. (In reported speech, the reader does not assume that the words are the speaker’s exact words; often, they are a paraphrase of the speaker’s words.

Example: Maria asked John where he was going. John said he was going home.

Note: Use of the word “that” is optional in reported speech. Both of the following sentences are correct: The boy said that he was lost. The boy said he was lost.

Procedure of changing direct speech into indirect speech

1.      Remove comma and inverted commas.

2.      Put "that" between the reporting and reported speeches. (it is optional to put "that" between the reporting and reported speech)

3.      Change the 1st letter of reported speech into small letter except for "I".

4.      Change the pronoun of the direct speech according to the rules.

5.      Change the tense of the direct speech appropriately according to rules.

6.      Change the words expressing nearness in time or places of the direct speech into its appropriate words expressing distance.

Change in Pronouns

The pronouns of the Direct Speech are changed where necessary, according to their relations with the reporter and his hearer, rather than with the original speaker. If we change direct speech into indirect speech, the pronouns will change in the following ways.

Rules	Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
The first person of the reported speech changes according to the subject of reporting speech.	She says, "I am in tenth class."	She says, "I am in tenth class."
The second person of reported speech changes according to the object of reporting speech.	He says to them, "You have completed your job."	He tells them that they have completed their job.
The third person of the reported speech doesn't change.	She says, "She is in tenth class."	She says that she is in tenth class.

Change in Tenses

The past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses do not change.

Rules	Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
Simple Present Changes To Simple Past	"I always drink coffee", she said	She said that she always drank coffee.
Present Continuous Changes To Past Continuous	"I am reading a book", he explained.	He explained that he was reading a book
Present Perfect Changes To Past Perfect	She said, "He has finished his work"	She said that he had finished his work.
Present Perfect Continuous Changes To Past Perfect Continuous	"I have been to Spain", he told me.	He told me that he had been to Spain.
Simple Past Changes To Past Perfect	"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.	He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday
Past Perfect Changes To Past Perfect (No Change In Tense)	"I had just turned out the light," he explained.	He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Past Continuous Changes To Past Perfect Continuous	"We were living in Paris", they told me.	They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future Changes To Present Conditional	"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said	He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Future Continuous Changes To Conditional Continuous	She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday."	She said that she would be using the car next Friday.

Change in Words expressing nearness in time or places

Generally changed into words expressing distance.

Change of place and time	Direct Speech Word	Indirect Speech Word
	Here	There
	Today	that day
	this morning	that morning
	Yesterday	the day before
	Tomorrow	the next day
	next week	the following week
	next month	the following month
	Now	Then
	Ago	Before
	Thus	So
	Last Night	the night before
	This	That
	These	Those
	Hither	Thither
	Hence	Thence
	Come	Go

Rules for changing Direct into Indirect Speech

1.      The past tense is often used when it is uncertain if the statement is true or when we are reporting objectively.

Indirect Speech Conversion	Direct Speech Condition
Present Tenses in the Direct Speech are changed into Past Tense.	If the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense.
Do Not Change Tense of reported Speech in Indirect Speech sentence	If in direct speech you find say/says or will say.
	Direct speech the words within the quotation marks talk of a universal truth or habitual action.
	The reporting verb is in a present tense.

2.      When there are two sentences combined with the help of a conjunction and both sentences have got different tenses, then change the tenses of both sentences according to the rule.

Changes in Modals

Rules	Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
CAN changes into COULD	He said, "I can drive a car".	He said that he could drive a car.
MAY changes into MIGHT	He said, "I may buy a computer"	He said that he might buy a computer.
MUST changes into HAD TO	He said, "I must work hard"	He said that he had to work hard.
These Modals Do Not Change: Would, could, might, should, ought to.
Would	They said, "we would apply for a visa"	They said that they would apply for visa.
Could	He said, "I could run faster"	He said that he could run faster.
Might	John said, "I might meet him".	John said that he might meet him.
Should	He said, "I should avail the opportunity"	He said that he should avail the opportunity.
Ought to	He said to me, "you ought to wait for him"	He said to me that I ought to wait for him.

The Introductory Sentence/Reporting verb

If you use Reported Speech there are mostly two main differences.  The introductory sentence in Reported Speech can be in the Present or in the Past. If the introductory sentences are in the Simple Present, there is no backshift of tenses.

Direct Speech:             Susan: “Mary works in an office.”

Reported Speech:        Introductory sentence in the Simple Present → Susan says (that)* Mary works in an office.

Introductory sentence in the Simple Past → Susan said (that)* Mary worked in an office.

Different Types of Sentences

When you use reported speech, you either report:

a.      Reporting Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

1. Pronouns

In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.

Example: She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes roast chicken.

2. Tenses

If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.

If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in reported speech.

	Direct speech	Reported speech
(no backshift)	“I write poems.”	He says that he writes poems.
(backshift)	“I write poems.”	He said that he wrote poems.

No backshift: Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).

Example: He says, “I write poems.” – He says that he writes English.

Backshift: You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said).

Example: He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.

Examples of the main changes in tense:

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Simple Present He said: "I am happy"	Simple Past He said that he was happy
Present Progressive He said: "I'm looking for my keys"	Past Progressive He said that he was looking for his keys
Simple Past He said: "I visited New York last year"	Past Perfect Simple He said that he had visited New York the previous year.
Present Perfect  He said: " I've lived here for a long time "	Past Perfect  He said that he had lived there for a long time
Past Perfect  He said: "They had finished the work when Iarrived"	Past Perfect  He said that they had finished the work when he had arrived"
Past Progressive He said: "I was playing football when the accident occurred"	Past Perfect Progressive He said that he had been playing football when the accident had occurred
Present Perfect Progressive He said:"I have been playing football for two hours."	Past Perfect Progressive He said that he had been playing football for two hours
Past Perfect Progressive He said: "I had been reading a newspaper when the light went off"	Past Perfect Progressive He said that he had been reading a newspaper when the light had gone off
Future Simple (will+verb) He said: "I will open the door."	Conditional (would+verb) He said that he would open the door.
Conditional (would+verb) He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were rich"	Conditional (would+verb) He said that he would buy Mercedes if he had beenrich"

The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example: He said, "She might be right." – He said that she might be right.

Other modal verbs may change:

Modal	Direct speec	Repored speech
can	"I can do it."	He said he could do it.
may	"May I go out?"	He wanted to know if he might go out.
must	"She must apply for the job."	He said that she must/had to apply for the job.
will	"They will call you."	He tod her that they would call her.

3. Place, demonstratives and time expressions

Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.

In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time expressions.

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Time Expressions
today	that day
now	Then
yesterday	the day before
… days ago	… days before
last week	the week before
next year	the following year
tomorrow	the next day / the following day
Place
here	There
Demonstratives
this	That
these	Those

  

b.      Reporting Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

Pronouns, place and time expressions, tenses (backshift)

Also note that you have to:

·         transform the question into an indirect question

·         use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether

Types of questions	Direct speech	Reported speech
With question word (what, why, where, how...)	"Why" don’t you speak English?”	He asked me why I didn’t speak English.
Without question word (yes or no questions)	“Do you speak English?”	He asked me whether / if I spoke English.

c. Reporting requests / commands

When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:

·         pronouns

·         place and time expressions

Direct speech	Reported speech
“Nancy,do the exercise.“	He told Nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please."	He asked Nancy to give him her pen.

Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to  / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")

Example:

She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.

She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy

For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to) For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).

d. Other transformations

Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
Example: “You must read this book.“
He advised / urged me to read that book.

The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example: “Let’s go to the cinema.“=
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.

Changes for Imperative Sentences

Imperative sentences do not normally have an expressed subject. This is because the subject ‘you’ is usually understood. As a result of this, imperative sentences begin with a verb in the simple present tense. An imperative sentence expresses ideas such as advice, order, request, suggestion, instruction, permission, allowance etc. Most commonly used words to join clauses together are ordered, requested, advised and suggested. Forbid(s)/ forbade is used for the negative sentences.

In order to change an imperative sentence into the indirect speech, we use a to-infinitive. A –that clause is also possible in some cases. Note that instead of ‘said’ we use one of the following reporting verbs: Advise, command, request, suggest, threaten, order, forbid, decree, propose, entreat, prompt, counsel, pardon, beg, persuade, instruct etc.

Notes:

After suggest, we use a –that clause and not an infinitive.

The verb propose is not followed by an object.

The verb forbid itself conveys a negative sense. Therefore, we do not use not in the following clause.

Examples:

Direct: Jim said to me, ‘Please lend me your pen.’

Indirect: Jim requested me to lend him my pen.

Direct: The officer said to the clerk, ‘Do it immediately.’

Indirect: The officer ordered the clerk to do it immediately.

Direct: The doctor said to the patient, ‘Quit smoking.’

Indirect: The doctor advised the patient to quit smoking. OR The doctor suggested that the patient should quit smoking.

Direct: I said to her, ‘Don’t mention his name.’

Indirect: I forbade her to mention his name.

Exclamatory Sentences

Exclamatory sentences expresses emotions. Interjections such as Hurrah, wow, alas, oh, ah are used to express emotions. The word "that" is used as join clause.

Rules for conversion of Exclamatory Direct Speech Sentences into Indirect Speech Sentences

1.      Exclamatory sentence changes into assertive sentence.

2.      Interjections are removed.

3.      Exclamation mark changes into full stop.

4.      W.H words like , "what" and "how" are removed and before the adjective of reported speech we put "very"

5.      Changes of "tenses", "pronouns" and "adjectives" will be according to the previous rules.

Mood of Sentence in Direct Speech	Reporting verb in indirect verb
sorrow in reported speech	Exclaimed with sorrow/ grief/ exclaimed sorrowfully or cried out
happiness in reported speech	exclaimed with joy/ delight/ exclaimed joyfully
surprise in reported speech	exclaimed with surprise/ wonder/ astonishment"
appreciation and it is being expressed strongly	Applauded

Exercises

Turn the following sentences into indirect speech.

1.    ‘What do you want?’ she asked him.

2.    ‘Are you coming with us?’ he asked me.

3.    He asked, ‘When do you intend to make the payment?’

4.    ‘Do you come from China?’ said the prince to the girl.

5.    The poor man exclaimed, ‘Will none of you help me?’

6.    ‘Which way should I go?’ asked the little girl.

7.    Alladin said to the magician, ‘What have I done to deserve so severe a punishment?’

8.    ‘Don’t you know the way home?’ I said to her.

9.    ‘Do you write a good hand?’ the teacher said to the student.

10.    ‘Have you anything to say on behalf of the accused?’ said the judge finally.

11.    ‘Have you anything to tell me, little bird?’ asked Ulysses.

12.    ‘Who are you, sir, and what do you want?’ they asked.

13.    The king was impressed with the magician and asked, ‘What can I do for you?’

14.    She asked, ‘What is it that makes you stronger and braver than other men?’

15.    ‘Can you solve this problem?’ he asked me.

Answers

1.    She asked him what he wanted.

2.    He asked me if I was coming/going with them.

3.    He enquired when I/he/she intended to make the payment.

4.    The prince asked the girl if she came from China.

5.    The poor man exclaimed whether none of them would help him.

6.    The little girl asked which way she should go.

7.    Alladin asked the magician what he had done to deserve so severe a punishment.

8.    I asked her whether she did not know the way home.

9.    The teacher asked the student if he/she wrote a good hand.

10.    The judge finally asked whether he/she had anything to say on behalf of the accused.

11.    Ulysses asked the little bird whether it had anything to tell him.

12.    They asked who he was and what he wanted.

13.    The king was impressed with the magician and asked what he could do for him.

14.    She asked him what was it that made him stronger and braver than other men.

15.    He asked me if I could solve that problem.

Sources :

http://www.stlcc.edu/Student_Resources/Academic_Resources/Writing_Resources/Grammar_Handouts/reported_speech.pdf

http://cdac.olabs.co.in/?sub=84&brch=26&sim=196&cnt=499

http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/reported.htm

http://www.englishpractice.com

http://www.myenglishpages.com