Cultural Interaction

A Comparative Analysis of Negotiator Profiles across Cultures

Abstract

This comparative analysis aims at comparing business negotiating profile across cultures. To achieve the aim of the research, the researcher employs descriptive qualitative method. The result of this research show that from 4 data: Each negotiator have difference patterns in business cultures. (1) Indonesian negotiator is Relationship Focused, Formal, Fluid Time and Reserved Cultures. (2) French negotiator is Relationship Focused, Formal, Rigid Time, Expressive Cultures. (3) British negotiator is Deal Focused, Formal, Rigid Time, Reserved Cultures. (4) U.S. negotiator is Deal Focused, Informal, Rigid Time, Expressive Cultures.

Keywords: Comparative Analysis, Descriptive Qualitative, Indonesian Negotiator, French Negotiator, British Negotiator, U.S. Negotiator

1. Introduction

This research aims at comparing business negotiating profile across cultures. Cross-cultural business interaction is important to be studied, because each country has cultural differences which appear to be a great problem for international deal makers since they are confusing and unpredictable. So, from learning cross-cultural business interaction we can reduce that confusion and introduce that some predictability by classifying international business customs and practices into logical patterns.

There are two iron rules of international business: 1. The Seller adapts to the buyer. To do that, people can thorough knowledge of international business customs and practices which especially important for people who involved in international sales and marketing. 2. The Visitor is expected to observe local custom. It’s like “enter village, follow customs”, “when in Rome, do as the Romans do”. Considering the 2nd rule, the author disagree and gives an advice to not to mimic or copy local behaviour. Instead, just be yourself. But of course, “being yourself” includes being aware of local sensitivities and honouring local customs, habits and traditions.

Cross-cultural business behaviour has four patterns. First, There are two kinds of people based on their cultures: Deal-Focused People (DF) are fundamentally task-oriented. DF people are pushy, aggressive and offensively blunt. Relationship-Focused People (RF) are fundamentally people-oriented. RF people are dilatory, vague and inscrutable. Second, In Business Cultures there are Formal or Informal cultures. Informal Cultures are Egalitarian Cultures and Formal Cultures are Hierarchical Societies. Third, In timing the business cultures there are two kinds of time: Rigid Time is like worship the clock, they as an arrogant martinets enslaved by clocks and arbitrary deadlines people and Fluid Time is like more relaxed about time. They as a lazy, undisciplined and rude people. Fourth, in emotionally cultures, there are expressive people and reserved people. Emotionally expressive people are communicating verbally, paraverbally or nonverbally. Emotionally reserved people behave out of a respect for etiquette and out of a sense of prudence.

2.  Method

The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative. The source of the data used in this research is Cross-Cultural Business Behaviour written by Richard R. Gesteland. The data used are (1) Indonesian Negotiator, (2) French Negotiator, (3) British Negotiator, (4) U.S. Negotiator.

3. Discussion

Indonesian Negotiator is a Relationship-Focused, hierarchical, and relaxed about punctuality and deadlines. Indonesian negotiators tend to be soft spoken, friendly, and polite.

French Negotiator is Relationship-Focused, France remains one of Europe’s most hierarchical societies today. Visitors are expected to be roughly on time for business meetings, particularly if they are selling.  The differences between French Negotiator and Indonesian Negotiator are in time and emotionally cultures.

British Negotiator is a Deal-Focused, time-obsessed and tend to be direct. Formality, hierarchies and status are differences in British. In England is largely determined by one’s regional. The differences between British Negotiator, French Negotiator, and Indonesian Negotiator are in the people focused, time and emotionally cultures.

U.S. Negotiator is a Deal-Focused, time-conscious or time is money, informal and multi-ethnic, multiracial, multi-cultural society. The differences between U.S. Negotiator, Indonesian Negotiator, French Negotiator, and British Negotiator are in people focused, formal or informal business cultures, time and emotionally cultures.

A brief explanation about the difference Patterns in Business Cultures

in 1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th negotiator in a table.

Negotiators	Deal Focused or Relationship Focused	Formal or Informal Business Cultures	Time and Scheduling	Emotionally Expressive and Emotionally Reserved Cultures
Indonesian	Relationship Focused	Formal	Fluid Time	Reserved Cultures
French	Relationship Focused	Formal	Rigid Time	Expressive Cultures
British	Deal Focused	Formal	Rigid Time	Reserved Cultures
U.S.	Deal Focused	Informal	Rigid Time	Expressive Cultures

4. Conclusion and Suggestion

Conclusion about discussion above, it can be concluded that from 4 data: Each negotiator have difference patterns in business cultures. (1) Indonesian negotiator is Relationship Focused, Formal, Fluid Time and Reserved Cultures. (2) French negotiator is Relationship Focused, Formal, Rigid Time, Expressive Cultures. (3) British negotiator is Deal Focused, Formal, Rigid Time, Reserved Cultures. (4) U.S. negotiator is Deal Focused, Informal, Rigid Time, Expressive Cultures.

Suggestion for future or another research is based on the result of the analysis and the conclusion above, in this research only four data. If it’s more than 4 data the result will be different. Another researcher can continue this research with different negotiators or more than 4 data.

5. References

Gesteland, Richard R. 2002. Cross-Cultural Business Behaviour.  Fourth Edition.

            Copenhagen Business School Press.

http://www.watershedassociates.com/learning-center-item/expessive-vsreserved-style.html

(retrieved on November 22, 2015)

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

What are modal auxiliary verbs?

They are auxiliary verbs that provide additional and specific meaning to the main verb of the sentence. Modals add special meaning to the verbs they are used with. These meanings include: ability, permission, obligation, possibility. Modals present difficulties for readers and writers because the same form may have more than one meaning. It is important to understand the meaning of the paragraph in which the modal occurs to understand which meaning the modal expresses.

How do we use modals?

Form:   S + Modal + V

Example: Mary could play the piano

They do not accept conjugation

They do not need other auxiliary verbs

He can ski. He cans ski or He can skis (There is no “s” in singular)

Would you like to come with me? Do you would like to come with me? (There is no “do / does” in the question)

They can’t be serious. They don’t can be serious (There is no “don’t / doesn’t” in the negative)  

Modal verbs do not have infinitives or –ing forms

to can / caning                         to must /musting

Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without to

Modal verbs use other verbs to complete the tenses

Can is completed with be able to

Example : They can play the piano They will be able to play the piano in the future

Must is completed with have to

Example : You must come early You had to come early yesterday

What do they express?

They can have more than one meaning depending on the situations.

1.      Single Concept Modal: they have one meaning

2.      Double Concept Modal: they have two meanings

3.      Modals in past: They are used to express a situation in the past

They are modals referred to actions that happened in the past

Modal + Have + verb in past participle

Example:

It must have been a difficult decision

They should have invited her to their wedding

Here is a list of Modal Auxiliary Verbs 

Patterns, Functions and Examples
I.            Ability:

Can and be able to are often used to describe the ability to do something. But be able to is used in situations where can does not have the necessary grammatical form.

Example: I would like to be able to swim. Not being able to swim is annoying.

But there is a difference between be able to and can.

Be able to =manage to do something, and something that needs a lot of effort or endeavor. It is very challenging and difficult. And the speaker wants to emphasize that they succeeded in doing that.

Example: They were able to climb the mountain. (The mountain is very high but they had climbed over the mount).

Example: They could climb the mountain. (Perhaps they are good climber but We don’t know whether they succeed or not).

II.            Certainty and Uncertainty:

1/Must and can’t:

These are used to make deductions, when we are more or less certain about something, especially with the very to be.

Example:

You must be tired after a long journey like that (I suppose you are).

That can’t be Sarah. She‘s in Brazil. (I am sure it is impossible).

2/May, might, and could:

There all express uncertainty or possibility. They are usually stressed in speech. Might is less likely than may. Could is not used with not in this context.

Example: It may not rain .I might go out. I don’t know. I could get wet!

3/Be bound to:

This refers to the future, whereas must refers to the present.

Example:

You ‘re bound to see Paula if you go there (I am sure you will)

You must see Paula if you go there (An obligation)

III.            Obligation:

1/Must and have to:

Have to describe obligations made by someone else, while must is used to describe a personal.

Example:

You must start working hard (I say so).

You have to run faster to catch up with your opponents. (It is objective motivate)

Sorry, I must/have to leave now. (No difference)

2/Mustn’t and don’t have to:

Mustn’t describes something that is not allowed. Don’t have to describe something which is not necessary.

Example: You mustn’t leave any bags here (It‘s against the regulation)

You don’t have to apply yet (It‘s not necessary)

3/Should and ought to:

These have the same meaning. They describe what is a good idea and can be used to give advice, or polite instructions.

Example:

I think you should see a doctor. You ought not to continue.

You should sow the cabbage seeds before the rainy season comes.

4/Should as expectation:

Should can also describe actions we expect to happen.

Example: Brenda should be home by now. (She is expected to be)

5/Had better:

This refers to present or future time, and gives advice about how to stop something going wrong

Example:

I think you’d better leave now (Before it is too late)

You ’d better not dive. (It might be very dangerous)

Past Modal Verb:

I/Ability:

1/Could: Could describes past ability

Example: When I were young, I could run very fast.

2/Could and was able to: Was able to describes the ability to successfully complete an action.

Example:

Mary was able to help us      (She actually help us).

Mary could help us               ( But perhaps she didn’t).

II/Certainty and uncertainty

1/Must have and can’t have: These are used to make deductions about past actions.

Example:

The “have” form does not change.

I must have left my wallet in the car.     (I am sure I did)

Ex: Jim can't have noticed you.             (I am sure he didn't).

2/May ha, might have and could have: These expression possibility or uncertainty about past actions. The "have" form does not change.

Example:

Jean might have miss the train.                    (Perhaps she did).

He may not have received the letter.           (Perhaps he didn’t).

You could have been killed. It was a possibility.

3/Was/were to have: This describes something which was supposed to happen but didn’t. It is formal in use. The “have” form does not change.

Example:

He was to have left yesterday.

He was supposed to leave but he didn’t

1/Had to: Had to is generally used as the past form of must.

Example: Sorry I’m late, I had to take the children to school.

2/Should have and ought to have: These express the speaker’s feeling that mistake was made.

Example:

 The have form does not change.

You should have post the letter yesterday

3/Needn’t have and didn’t have to: Needn’t have describes an action which happened but was unnecessary. The have form does not change.

Example:

I needn’t have bought some sugar.

I didn’t need to buy more sugar.

I didn’t because we had enough.    

          

IV.            Indirect speech:

1/Must, shall and should:

Must is reported as had to or must. Shall with future reference is reported as would. Other uses of shall are reported as should

"You must go".                  He told me I had to go

                                           He told me I must go.

"I shall be there".              He told us he would be there.

"Shall I help?"                     He asked if he should help.

Exercise!

Choose the correct modal verb.

1. _________ I have more cheese on my sandwich?
a) Must
b) Could
c) Would
d) Have to
2. You _________ eat more vegetables.
a) should
b) might
c) may
d) could
3. I _________ like to buy the same television for my house.
a) could
b) must
c) would
d) have to
4. _________ I have a coffee please?
a) Must
b) Have to
c) May
d) Would
5. You _________ smoke near children.
a) have to
b) may
c) shouldn't
d) couldn't
6. The passengers _________wear their seatbelts at all times.
a) could
b) must
c) can
d) may
7. We _________ go to the concert if the rain stops. We don't know for sure.
a) mustn't
b) might
c) have to
c) wouldn't
8. I _________ ice skate very well.
a) can
b) may
c) must
d) should
9. The boys _________wake up earlier than 7:30 am. They have class at 8:00 am.
a) would
b) can't
c) could
d) have to
10. The rock band _________play very well last year. Now they are much better.
a) must
b) couldn't
c) can
c) should

Answers!

1.      b          2. a      3. c      4. c      5. c      6. b      7. b      8. a      9. d      10. b

References:                                                         

http://farmacia.unich.it/farmacologia/didattica/inglese/modals.pdf

http://khoaanh.hcmup.edu.vn/projects/Grammar/grammar2_2008/1B07/Thuy.Duong_My.Ngan_Phuong.Thao_Bui.T.Thao/theoryfp.htm

http://www.history.ucla.edu/academics/undergraduate/history-writing-center/handouts/handouts/Modal%20Auxiliary%20Verbs.pdf

http://www.learnenglish-online.com/grammar/modals/tests/modaltest2.html

Conditional Sentence/If Clause

What is Conditional Sentence/If Clause?

Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. 

Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This usage is referred to as “the unreal past” because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using “unless” instead of "if".

The term of Two Clause (with/without comma)

Conditional sentences have two clauses:  a conditional clause (if...) and main clause (a result).  If the “if” clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the “if” clause comes second, there is no need for a comma.

If I have enough money, conditional clause (if)	I will go to Japan.     main clause (a result)
I will go to Japan main clause (a result)	if I have enough money     conditional clause (if)

There are 4 types of Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentence type	If clause verb tense	Main clause verb tense
Zero	Simple present	Simple present
Type 1	Simple present	Simple future
Type 2	Simple past	Present conditional or Present continuous conditional
Type 3	Past perfect	Perfect conditional

The patterns of Conditional Sentence/If Clause

Every patterns in Conditional Sentence has verb tenses.  The verb tenses used in each clause depends on whether the speaker thinks the result is probable (real) or only exists in the imagination (unreal).

The zero conditional

If clause: If + simple present,	Main clause: simple present
If this thing happens,	that thing happens.
If you heat ice,	it melts.
If it rains,	the grass gets wet.

The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually be replaced by the word "when" without changing the meaning.

Type 1 conditional

If clause: If + simple present,	Main clause: simple future
If this thing happens,	that thing will happen.
If you don't hurry,	you will miss the train.
If it rains today,	you will get wet.

The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if clause is in the simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.

Type 2 conditional

If clause: If + simple past,	Main clause: present conditional or present continuous conditional
If this thing happened,	that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure this thing will happen) / that thing would be happening.
If you went to bed earlier,	you would not be so tired.
If it rained,	you would get wet.

The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal. These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main clause uses the present conditional.

Type 3 conditional

If clause: If + past perfect,	Main clause: perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional
If this thing had happened,	that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really happened) / that thing would have been happening.
If you had studied harder,	you would have passed the exam.
If it had rained,	you would have gotten wet.

The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.

Uses of the Conditional Sentence/If Clause (Facts & When)

1.      Type 1

Fact/Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is likely to happen.

Time/When: This condition refers either to present or to future time. Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time.

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

Fact : I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure, however, that I will find it.

Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.

Fact: I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.

Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative.

          Example: If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening.

2.      Type 2

Fact/Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine “what would happen if …“

Time/When: present; the tense is past, but we are talking about the present, now. Conditional Sentences Type II refers to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different.

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

Fact: I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her address.

Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.

Fact: I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future.

Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative.

  Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here.

3.      Type 3

Fact/Nature: unreal. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled.

Time/When: Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

Fact: Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation.

Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.

Fact: I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one.

Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative.

          Example: If I hadn’t studied, I wouldn’t have passed my exams.

Remember!

1.      The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses.

EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses.

Example:         If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.

I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.

(= ± please, come this way; please, give me...)

2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:

Example:         If I were a rich man...

3. After if, we can either use "some(-one, -where...)" or "any(-one, -where...).

Example:         If I have some spare time next weekend.... or

                        If I have any spare time...

4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.

Example:         I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.

He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.

5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past:

If + Past Perfect - would + inf.

If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].

Exercises:

A.    Decide which of the sentences below is conditional type 1, 2 & 3:

1.      If I were rich, I would travel around the world.  (             )

2.      She wouldn't have missed the train if she had woken up earlier. (              )

3.      I’ll call you if I come back early. (           )

B.     Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense (conditional 1):

1. If I (finish)          early, I will call you.
2. I (catch)                the 9:00 train if I hurry up .
3. She will know the answer, if she (try)         to understand.

C.    Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense (conditional 2):

1. If I (be)              a star, I would help the needy.
2. He (buy)                  a house if he had a job.
3. She (be)                 happy, if she marries him.

D.    Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense (conditional 3):

1. If he (be)               careful, he would not be have had that terrible accident.
2. I (pass)                          the exam if I had worked hard.
3. Her father would not have died, if he (go)              to the doctor.

Answers:

A.

1.      (Type 2)

2.      (Type 3)

3.      (Type 1) 

B.      

1.      Finish

2.      would catch

3.      tries

C.

1.   were/was

2.   would buy

3.   would be

D.

1.   had been

2.   would have passed

3.   had gone

References:

https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/conditional-sentences

http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/stonebrink/ESL040/4_types_of_conditionals.htm

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conditional2.htm

http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/conditional/

http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-exercise-conditionals.php